Motivation Models and Theories

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There are many individual theories of motivation, but generally speaking they can be categorized as one of seven schools of thought:

1. Needs Hierarchy Theory
2. Equity Theory
3. Expectancy Theory
4. Reinforcement Theory
5. Goal-Setting Theory
6. Self-Regulation Theory
7. Job Characteristics Theory
   

The Hierarchy of Needs

While the Needs Hierarchy Model has little empirical support, and Muchinsky suggests it has limited applicability in the organizational setting, others disagree. While not as "testable" as some other theories, it does shed some light on human nature and needs which do appear to be universal and can be addressed in ways that can contribute to motivation. For a discussion of the Needs Hierarchy, and the motivation–hygiene model, read the following document:

Motivation Models

The following information, has been extracted (with some modification) from "Unit 3: Motivation and Individual Productivity" of the FEMA/USFA/NFA/Degrees at a Distance Program, Course Guide, Personnel Management for the Fire Service,January, 2000. Motivation The word motivation comes from the Latin word movere, which means "to move." In common usage, a "motivator" is anything that causes a person to change behavior, or "move," and a "motive" is an incentive to act. Obviously, what motivates one person may not motivate another, and the same motivator may not always have the same impact on the same person. Leaders need to identify legitimate and satisfactory ways to convince officers to improve their behavior and productivity on the job. Getting people to change basic values is difficult. Managers often seek to change the job or the environment surrounding the job. Motivation "models" and theories show how to achieve this most efficiently. 1. The Needs Hierarchy Model The Needs Hierarchy Model developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow (7) shows that people have five levels of need. The lower level needs must be satisfied, or at least partially satisfied, before the higher level needs emerge and can be addressed. The five levels, from lowest to highest, are: physiological (food, clothing, and shelter), safety, social, ego, and self-actualization (developing full potential) Maslow's pyramid of needs Maslow's Pyramid of Needs models the basis of motivation that he developed over years of study. The first and broadest level of needs is termed "physiological needs." This level provides the basics of life, such as food, shelter, and physical comforts. The second level involves safety (physical and job security), a high priority for most people. The top three levels of motivation (belonging, esteem, and self-actualization) present the biggest leadership challenges. It is difficult to develop an environment that allows team players to find opportunities for self-actualization, and to be respected and empowered by fellow team players to continue positive and productive individual efforts. Maslow's pyramid of needs Employees move up and down the pyramid during their employment experience. The highest and most influential level of motivation (self-actualization) is short lived. Employees attain a temporary "high" from personal achievement and then fall back to another level on the pyramid. Work experiences offer continued challenges while one is pursuing self-actualization. Good leaders work hard to provide the resources, planning, guidance, and support needed to achieve desired results (on time and under budget). A positive work environment that supports employee achievement, recognizes success, and adjusts for failures is necessary when motivating employees. Maslow's five levels can be reduced to three: existence (the lowest level), relatedness (the levels encompassing social needs), and growth (including the ego and self-actualization levels). These make up what is sometimes called the "ERG" model. People often behave on two or more levels simultaneously. For example, an employee may require social acceptance even though his/her self (ego) is fulfilled after a personal accomplishment. Also, people may shift quickly from one need level to another, as when facing physical danger or when employment is lost. In applying the motivational theories to fire departments, there are distinct differences among organizations. For example, in a department that is respected and secure within the community, and whose services are well used, "existence" is not threatened. This is especially true when fire department personnel provide advanced life support emergency medical care, public education and fire prevention, and administrative authority for the management of hazardous materials. A leadership style that promotes a safe work environment, performs ongoing training, establishes safe work standards, and upgrades safety equipment to the "state-of-the-art" upholds the level of security necessary under the "existence" theories. A leadership style that uses the tenets of team play by diffusing authority through the ranks and using communities, quality circles, brainstorming, and other group skills to determine departmental direction builds a solid base for social "relatedness" needs. When team players realize that they have a vested interest in achieving desired results (as validated by team goal setting and buy-in to the mission), they exercise the opportunity to grow within the organization and achieve self-actualization. If the leaders support and recognize personal growth and provide opportunity for the team players to achieve desired results, the morale of the organization is enhanced. Behavior of personnel can be affected by extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. Extrinsic rewards, such as working conditions, promotions, and commendations, can be given by the department. Intrinsic rewards, such as a sense of worth and accomplishment, can be given only by the self. However, department leadership can design and organize the work environment and procedures to enable individuals to "reward" themselves intrinsically. An example occurs when departments hold critiques of fires that focus on what was done well in addition to what could stand improvement. This allows for a positive communication about performance as well as constructive critical review. While sometimes addressed independently and/or in conjunction with a discussion of the job characteristics theories, Herzberg's theory is closely allied to Malsow's needs hierarchy model and is worthy of discussion. Herzberg's The Motivation-Hygiene Model (8), asked a large number of engineers and accountants in Pittsburgh what they liked and disliked about their work. He categorized the findings into two kinds of factors: "hygiene" and "motivation." "Hygiene factors" describe the environment surrounding the work. While not personally motivational, they are critical to the well-being of the organization. Like preventive inoculations, they are not cures, but they can prevent sickness, hence the term "hygiene" factors. Hygiene factors include company policy and administration, the development of promotional procedures, training standards, security, salary, working conditions, and relations with others. "Motivation factors" include the nature of the work itself, and the opportunity for job-enriching experiences such as a personal achievement of a goal or challenge. Motivation factors increase job satisfaction, raise motivation, and help improve productivity. Herzberg decided that motivation stems from a challenging job that encourages personal growth, development, recognition, and enjoyment of the work and its job-enriching experiences. Poor hygiene and leadership practices that fail to recognize the importance of team effort and proper discipline are discouraging. The motivation-hygiene model provides leadership with a better understanding of motivation and job satisfaction. The salary system is a form of hygiene. The payroll system provides satisfaction if developed appropriately and dissatisfaction if it is "out of sync" with employee expectations. A work project for which overtime is paid, not the money itself, can be a motivational force. If the work assignment provides the employee with the opportunity to achieve a higher level of self-esteem and a feeling of personal accomplishment, motivation will occur. If you look at the Herzberg theory, you'll see that Maslow's physiological, safety and belongingness needs address what Herzberg refers to as "hygiene" factors while the "motivation" factors entail Maslow's esteem and self actualization needs. There has been some discussion among emergency service leaders as to whether or not the "social" needs are hygenic or motivational in nature. With so much emphasis and reliance upon teamwork and with some teams becoming a "family," some would suggest that satisfaction of the belongingness needs may be motivational rather than only hygenic. ENDNOTES 7. Maslow, Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954. 8. F. Herzberg, B. Mausner, and B. Snyderman, The Motivation to Work. New York: Wiley, 1959.

Reading Assignment: Visit the Deepermind website by George Norwood (1999), The Truth Vectors (Part I) at Maslow's hierarchy of needs at http://www.deepermind.com/20maslow.htm

2. and 3. Equity and Expectancy Theories

Reading Assignment: The reading will address equity and expectancy theories. Please read Chapter 12, pages 247-250, "Motivation ," from the Fire Service Personnel Management textbook by Steven Edwards.

4. Reinforcement Theories

You likely have heard the saying "behavior that is rewarded is repeated." Reinforcement theories are based on this principle and represent a form of behavior modification. The positive reinforcement model suggests that people behave in ways they find rewarding and implementation of proper rewards will lead to an increase in the amount and quality of the desired behavior.

To establish a positive reinforcement program, the job or set of tasks (such as the operation of an aerial ladder) must be well defined. Goals and standards must be set (such as, in the operation of an aerial ladder, using a high-capacity-tip nozzle), feedback must be given to the operator (such as neutral statements about the proper sequence of operation, not valuative statements), and a reward should be tied to the performance of the tasks (such as an operator's certificate).

Under a program of continuous reinforcement, progress may be rapid, but may decline if reinforcement is delayed. Partial reinforcement programs are usually more manageable, perhaps on some calculated schedule. In a career fire department, payday occurs on a fixed interval schedule, promotions occur on a variable schedule, and commendations occur on a partial schedule.

According to Hammer (1974), there are six basic rules for using reinforcement:

1. Do not reward everyone the same way. Using a defined objective or standard, give more rewards to the better performers.

2. Recognize that failure to respond also has reinforcing consequences. Supervisors influence employees by what they do not do as well as by what they do. Lack of reward thus can also influence behavior.

3. Clearly describe what must be done to be rewarded. If employees have standards against which to measure the job, they can use their own built-in feedback system to make self-judgments about the work. They can then adjust work patterns accordingly.

4. Tell people what they are doing wrong. Few people like to fail; most want to get positive rewards. A supervisor who withholds rewards from subordinates should give them a clear idea of why the rewards are not forthcoming. The employees can then adjust their behavior accordingly rather than try to guess what behavior will be rewarded.

5. Do not punish anyone in front of others. Constructive criticism is as useful in eliminating unwanted behavior as is punishment. However, criticizing or punishing anyone in front of others lowers the individual's self-respect and self-esteem. Furthermore, other members of the work group may sympathize with the punished employee.

6. Be fair. Make the consequences equal to the behavior. Do not cheat an employee out of just rewards. If someone is a good worker, say so. Some supervisors find it difficult to praise; others find it difficult to counsel or tell an employee what is being done wrong. A person who is over rewarded may feel guilty, and one who is under rewarded may become angry. The best way to determine equity in recognizing and rewarding employee activity is to have an ongoing understanding of progress through close communication and support.

Now, immediately some assume the reinforcement must be monetary or status oriented, but that is not the case. As a supervisor, how often do you simply say to a star performer "You did a really good job on that evolution!" ?

There are some guidelines for using verbal positive reinforcement as a motivational tool. First, as indicated in the six rules, clearly identify what is the expected performance (or behavior). Secondly, "rewards" must be meaningful to the individual. Recognize that with the growing diversity within your agencies, you may not be able to reward everyone in the same way. Be alert to cultural and individual differences in what is meaningful to each person.

As Harvey (n.d.) states, to be effective recognition must be sincere, timely, specific, individual, personal, and proportional.

While I think most of us can agree with the importance of sincerity, we may not be a judicious regarding the timeliness of the "reward." Positive rewards should be given as close to the earning of that reward as is feasible; do not wait till the next annual review.

Specificity. Try not to say "You did a good job!" Tell specifically what was done well.

As appropriate, focus on individual accomplishments and achievements. Make it personal, recognizing that different individuals prefer different strategies in awarding "recognition." And, yes, the recognition should be in proportion to the accomplishment (Harvey, n.d.).

Team Rewards

In the emergency services in which teamwork is so vitally important, don't forget to recognize the team for a job well done. Generally speaking, the same guidelines apply.

Optional Reading Assignment: See if your school library has access to Alfie Kohn's article entitled, How Incentives Undermine Performance in the The Journal for Quality and Participation. Cincinnati: Mar/Apr 1998. Vol. 21, Iss. 2; p. 6

5. and 6. Goal Setting and Self-regulation Theories

We are going to address these two groups of theories together, as they share many assumptions in common.

First of all, these theories suggest that people respond to goals that then direct their behavior. Now, people must know what these goals are and what needs to be accomplished to attain the goal, and the person must be willing to work toward the identified goal(s). This then produces the "inclination to act" in a way that directs their behavior. Feedback is important so the person knows if he/ she is moving in the right direction.

Self-regulation theories point out that self-monitoring and assessment can be effective in moving toward goal attainment.

7. Job Characteristics Theories

The theories we have examined to this point have emphasized the individual. Job characteristics theories suggest that it is the environment in which the work is performed and the design of the job itself. Certain attributes of jobs are credited with instilling "motivation" in the job holders. While there has been extensive research in this arena, it appears that specific job characteristics may serve as motivators for some and not for others.

Two additional issues requiring attention when discussing motivation include the Pygmalion Effect (Self Fulfilling Prophecy) and the role of performance expectations.

The Pygmalion Effect

Another factor we need to consider in looking at motivation is the concept of the Pygmalion effect: the powerful influence of one person's perceived expectations on another person's performance. You get what you expect. High expectations lead to high performance. Low expectations lead to low performance.

Numerous studies supporting this premise have demonstrated its validity. Be alert as to how your personal feelings may impact others' perception of your expectations. Managers tend to like good performers and dislike poor performers. When you like someone you send more positive messages -reinforcing good behavior (Orally and nonverbally). When you dislike someone you send more negative messages - giving no incentive to improve. In working with your people you need to focus on behavior and not personalities and communicate positive messages to all employees. Your leadership priorities are to help your people succeed by having high expectations of all of them and communicating your confidence in them.

Reading Assignment: Take a few minutes and read the following article entitled "Management by Perception" at http://www.accel-team.com/Pygmalion. While you can read the entire site, please make sure that you read the introduction, the principles and the eight corollaries associated with "Management by Perception".

Performance (Job) Expectations, Performance Standards, and Motivation

There are many reasons that each position within the agency should have clearly identified performance expectations or standards. One of them is for motivation.

If expectations are clearly defined, and different levels of achievement are clearly defined, performance standards can become motivational tools. The individual knows what is expected, can assess where he/she is at, and can work toward improvement. The use of performance standards is consistent with goal setting and self-regulation theories of motivation.

Which Key Fits?

While there is some merit in each of the theories and when properly administered they do help to set the stage for motivation, they do not provide the total answer.

Every individual is unique and numerous factors impact the individual's motivational level at any one time.. There are nearly as many internal motivators as there are individuals when it comes to individual motivation. Is it achievement? Is it recognition? Is it increased responsibility? Is it "teamwork?" Is it "status"? Supervisors must know their employees and determine which key(s) fit. Getting to know your employees can help you be more effective in setting the stage for individual motivation.

Performance Incentives

Incentives are seen as "enticements" to attract and retain a quality workforce. Edwards (2005) discusses some of these in the text.

Reading Assignment: Please read Chapter 12, pages 237-243, "Introduction," and pages 250-254, "Performance Incentives" from the Fire Service Personnel Management textbook by Steven Edwards.

Additional Optional Resources

Motivation 123 - http://www.motivation123.com

Motivation - http://www.D.umn.edu/student/loon/acad/strat/motivate.html

Classics in the History of Psychology - http://psyclassics.yorku.ca/maslow/motivation.htm

Employee Motivation in the Workplace - http://www.accel-team.com/motivation/

Motivation: Hierarchy of Needs Theory - http://choo.fis.utoronto.ca/fis/courses/lis1230/lis1230sharma/motive1.htm

Society of Human Resource Management - http://www.shrm.org/hrlinks/

References

Bakke, E. W. The Fusion Process. New Haven: Yale University, 1953.

Blake, R. R. & Mouton, J. S. The Managerial Grid. Houston: Gulf Publishing, 1964.

Edwards, S. Fire Service Personnel Management. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson Education, 2005.

Hammer, W. C., "Reinforcement Theory and Contingency Management in Organizational Settings." In Organizational Behavior and Management: A Contingency Approach. H. Tosi and W.C. Hammer, eds., Chicago: St. Clair Press, 1974.

Harvey, E. 180 Ways to Walk the Recognition Talk. Dallas: Performance Systems Corporation.

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